Kilama W, Ntoumi F. Malaria: a research agenda for the eradication era. Lancet. 2009 Oct 31;374(9700):1480-2.

Sirima SB, Tiono AB, Ouédraogo A, Diarra A, Ouédraogo AL, Yaro JB, Ouédraogo E,
Gansané A, Bougouma EC, Konaté AT, Kaboré Y, Traoré A, Roma C, Soulama I, Luty AJ, Cousens S, Nébié I. Safety and immunogenicity of the malaria vaccine candidate MSP3 long synthetic peptide in 12-24 months-old Burkinabe children. PLoS One. 2009 Oct 26;4(10):e7549.

Background: A Phase Ia trial in European volunteers of the candidate vaccine merozoite surface protein 3 (MSP3), a Plasmodium falciparum blood stage membrane, showed that it induces biologically active antibodies able to achieve parasite killing in vitro, while a phase Ib trial in semi-immune adult volunteers in Burkina Faso confirmed that the vaccine was safe. The aim of this study was to assess the safety and immunogenicity of this vaccine candidate in children aged 12– 24 months living in malaria endemic area of Burkina Faso.
Methods: The study was a double-blind, randomized, controlled, dose escalation phase Ib trial, designed to assess the safety, reactogenicity and immunogenicity of three doses of either 15 or 30 mg of MSP3-LSP adsorbed on aluminum hydroxide in 45 children 12 to 24 months of age randomized into three equal groups. Each group received 3 vaccine doses (on days 0, 28 and 56) of either 15 mg of MSP3-LSP, 30 mg of MSP3-LSP or of the Engerix B hepatitis B vaccine. Children were visited at home daily for the 6 days following each vaccination to solicit symptoms which might be related to vaccination. Serious adverse events occurring during the study period (1 year) were recorded. Antibody responses to MSP3-LSP were measured on days 0, 28, 56 and 84.
Results: All 45 enrolled children received three MSP3 vaccine doses. No serious adverse events were reported. Most of the adverse events reported were mild to moderate in severity. The only reported local symptoms with grade 3 severity were
swelling and induration, with an apparently dose related response. All grade 3 adverse events resolved without any sequelae. Both MSP3 doses regimens were able to elicit high levels of anti-MSP3 specific IgG1 and IgG3 antibodies in the volunteers with very little or no increase in IgG2, IgG4 and IgM classes: i.e. vaccination induced predominantly the isotypes involved in the monocyte-dependent mechanism of P. falciparum parasite-killing.
Conclusion: Our results support the promise of MSP3-LSP as a malaria vaccine candidate, both in terms of tolerability and of immunogenicity. Further assessment of the efficacy of this vaccine is recommended.

Nebie I, Diarra A, Ouedraogo A, Tiono AB, Konate AT, Gansane A, Soulama I, Cousens S, Leroy O, Sirima SB. Humoral and cell-mediated immunity to MSP3 peptides in adults immunized with MSP3 in malaria endemic area, Burkina Faso. Parasite Immunol. 2009 Aug;31(8):474-80.

Centre National de Recherche et de Formation sur le Paludisme, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, West Africa. issanebie.cnlp@fasonet.bf

We performed a single-blind, randomized phase 1 trial of the long synthetic peptide (LSP) of merozoite surface protein-3 (MSP3) in adults living in Burkina Faso. Thirty eligible volunteers were randomized to receive either the MSP3-LSP candidate vaccine or tetanus toxoid vaccine as a control. A dose of each vaccine was administered on days 0, 28 and 112 and the vaccine was formulated with aluminium hydroxide. Humoral immune responses were assessed by ELISA at days 0, 28, 56, 112, 140, 252 and 365 and cell-mediated immune responses by lymphoproliferation assay and by ELISA on days 0, 56 and 140. IgG responses to four peptides of MSP3 were similar in both vaccine groups. Higher IgG concentrations were recorded after the beginning of malaria high transmission season in both vaccine groups. The lymphocyte proliferation and the production of IFN-gamma in response to stimulation with the four overlapping peptides increased following vaccination in the MSP3-LSP vaccine group, but did not change appreciably in the control group. In contrast to natural infection, MSP3-LSP did not boost humoral responses to the four overlapping peptides of MSP3 to any detectable degree in our semi-immune adult. MSP3-LSP may be more immunogenic in young children with little or no acquired immunity.

Noor RA. Health research oversight in Africa. Acta Trop. 2009 Nov; 112(1):S63 - S70

African Malaria Network Trust, PO Box 33207, Dares Salaam, Tanzania.

Increased research involving human participants in developing countries has resulted in commensurate rise in needs for functional oversight activities in health research. The importance of developing countries regulatory and ethical review authorities to demonstrate capability in reviewing clinical trials, quality of the products as well as clinical data obtained through well-coordinated oversight systems cannot be over emphasized. According to the recent international changes in regulatory frameworks and evolving manufacture's strategies, African countries are now responsible to review applications and license new products without necessarily having them licensed in the north so long as they are not intended to be used there. This paper reviews the status of health research oversight in Africa and gives an overview of some mechanisms that are being put in place in an effort to strengthen oversight of health research. Practical challenges that are prevailing in the field will be highlighted.

Kilama WL. The 10/90 gap in sub-Saharan Africa: Resolving inequities in health research. Acta Trop. 2009 Nov; 112(1): S8-S15

African Malaria Network Trust, P.O. Box 33207, Dares Salaam, Tanzania.

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is worse off in terms of health indicators than any other region of the world, and suffers badly from the 10/90 gap, whereby 90% of the world's investment in health research addresses only 10% of the global health problems. This anomaly in health research investment in SSA is mainly attributed to rampant poverty, weak educational institutions, deficient health research capacity, feeble communications systems and isolation. Translating research results into action, manufacturing and access are also weak. Furthermore, many diseases of poverty are neglected diseases, they receive scanty research attention; there are no new drugs or vaccines for their treatment or prevention. The situation in SSA is made worse by the surge in noncommunicable diseases and injuries. The paper reviews actions taken over the last two decades to resolve the 10/90 gap through: (i) policies prioritizing funding for health research, (ii) developing capacities of credible public and private SSA health research institutions, (iii) activities of international NGOs undertaking research aimed at resolving the gap, and (iv) the setting up of research based mechanisms to ensure access to new effective products for the treatment and prevention of poverty-related diseases. The paper highlights examples for each of the above, and discusses the overall situation. We conclude that despite the many capacity strengthening actions, and achievements made towards resolving the 10/90 gap, the disequilibrium still persists; there is need for greater investments aimed at closing it.

Kilama W. From research to control: Translating research findings into health policies, operational guidelines and health products. Acta Trop. 2009 Nov; 112(1): S91-S101

African Malaria Network Trust, Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology Building, Ali Hassan Mwinyi Road, P.O. Box 33207, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

Although Africa's health research capacity is still weak, African R&D institutions are contributing immensely to the development of health policies, guidelines and products essential for diagnosis, treatment, prevention and control of Africa's leading health problems. In order to increase Africa's contributions, all health research stakeholders should participate in setting health research priorities and agenda, followed by establishing health research networks and consortia, holistic capacity strengthening, and gathering of baseline data. The evaluation of candidate tools, and the research preceding it, must abide by international scientific and ethical standards, and must involve institutional and national regulatory authorities. The funding of product development and product availability in Africa benefits from national governments, bilateral, multilateral, and philanthropic agencies. When a trial is over poses many social and ethical issues, and not infrequently existing guidelines may not be adequate. Mechanisms for making products available in resource constrained countries are presented, as are problems relating to manufacturing, markets and procurement. So are obligations to trial and research communities. The paper concludes by outlining the obligations of each stakeholder, in order to make research products readily available in resource constrained settings.

Shemdoe GS. Introduction to intellectual property rights for investigators in health research and institutional intellectual property policy. Acta Trop. 2009 Nov; 112(1): S80-S83

Centre for the Development and Transfer of Technology (CDTT), Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH), P.O. Box 4302, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

The concept of Intellectual Property (IP) in the domain of technology has assumed enhanced importance and the subject matter has attracted more interest with time. As the world moves towards a knowledge-based economy, where wealth creation is no longer based on the capital investment per se, but rather more and more on the brainpower and ability to create, Intellectual Property has become an integral part of world business and a major source for wealth creation and economic growth (ARIPO, 2002). In recognizing the importance of IPR, African Malaria Network Trust (AMANET) has decided to include a module of intellectual property rights in its Health Research Ethics Training Courses for Investigators. This paper is introducing the subject of IP to investigators in health research so that they are able to recognize its importance as IP creators and utilizers of the IP system.

Nyika A. The ethics of improving African traditional medical practice: Scientific or African traditional research methods? Acta Trop. 2009 Nov; 112(1): S32-S36

African Malaria Network Trust (AMANET), P.O. Box 33207, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

The disease burden in Africa, which is relatively very large compared with developed countries, has been attributed to various factors that include poverty, food shortages, inadequate access to health care and unaffordability of Western medicines to the majority of African populations. Although for 'old diseases' knowledge about the right African traditional medicines to treat or cure the diseases has been passed from generation to generation, knowledge about traditional medicines to treat newly emerging diseases has to be generated in one way or another. In addition, the existing traditional medicines have to be continuously improved, which is also the case with Western scientific medicines.Whereas one school of thought supports the idea of improving medicines, be they traditional or Western, through scientific research, an opposing school of thought argues that subjecting African traditional medicines to scientific research would be tantamount to some form of colonization and imperialism. This paper argues that continuing to use African traditional medicines for old and new diseases without making concerted efforts to improve their efficacy and safety is unethical since the disease burden affecting Africa may continue to rise in spite of the availability and accessibility of the traditional medicines. Most importantly, the paper commends efforts being made in some African countries to improve African traditional medicine through a combination of different mechanisms that include the controversial approach of scientific research on traditional medicines.

Nyika A. Ethical and practical challenges surrounding genetic and genomic research in developing countries. Acta Trop. 2009 Nov; 112(1): S21-S31

African Malaria Network Trust (AMANET), P.O. Box 33207, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

The nature of some potential benefits and risks associated with genetic research is different from the types of potential benefits and risks associated with other types of health research such as clinical trials and biomedical research involving humans. Whereas most potential risks associated with biomedical research or clinical trials are mainly biological in nature, potential risks associated with genetic research are mainly of socioeconomic nature. Although the peculiarity of some of the aspects of genetic research and the complexity of the science involved are acknowledged, the extent to which these characteristics hinder firstly disclosure of information to participants and their communities and secondly comprehension of the disclosed information is a practical challenge that tends to be exaggerated in some cases. In this article, a brief overview of the various types of genetic research will be given in order to set the scene for some ethical and practical issues surrounding the research in developing countries that will be discussed subsequently. Case studies that illustrate some of the ethical and practical issues flagged will be given, followed by suggestions on possible ways of tackling some of the challenges in developing country settings. Nevertheless, genetic and genomic research could go a long way in providing knowledge that could be useful in the development of drugs and vaccines for many diseases affecting the developing countries.

Kilama WL. Health research ethics in public health: Trials and implementation of malaria mosquito control strategies. Acta Trop. 2009 Nov; 112(1): S37-S47

African Malaria Network Trust, PO Box 33207, Dares Salaam, Tanzania.

Health research ethics has its roots in protecting individuals participating in clinical trials. There is, however, nascent interest in ethics in public health, although it does not yet cover ethics in the development of public health products. The paper reviews the history of the development of malaria vector interventions, which initially aimed at promoting colonial interests. Attempts at eradicating malaria in Africa ended in 1969, and DDT, the leading malaria vector control tool was banned soon after. Insecticide Treated Nets, which later gave rise to Long Lasting Insecticidal Nets have resurrected malaria mosquito vector control, and their development has set new benchmarks, which it is suggested should be followed by all vector control tools under development. Furthermore, DDT has been exonerated and is back in the vector control arsenal. New tools under development include the sterile male technique, genetically modified mosquitoes, entomopathogenic fungi, and odorants.The paper proposes that these new tools be tested in community settings, abiding by all the leading bioethical principles, and calls for the development and implementation of international ethical guidelines for trials in public health.

Nyika A. Professional ethics: An overview from health research ethics point of view. Acta Trop. 2009 Nov; 112(1): S84-S90

African Malaria Network Trust (AMANET), P. O. Box 33207, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

The advancement of the medical field has been to a large extent made possible by the hard work contributed by researchers all over the world. The pool of knowledge generated through research is the basis for diagnostic methods, therapeutic interventions and policies that continue to improve the quality of life for mankind. Health researchers are the ones who interact directly with research participants as they implement research protocols. Although other players involved in health research such as Ethics Review Committees, Regulatory Authorities, Data Safety and Monitoring Boards, and sponsors help to ensure that the health research meets internationally acceptable scientific and ethical standards, researchers could be considered to be the major determining factor as to whether the research is actually done properly. Although professional associations of health researchers help to uphold the integrity of their members, there is need to complement the efforts of such associations and sensitize researchers on the ethical implications of some acts of commission or omission, done inadvertently or knowingly, that may not be adequately addressed by requirements of the associations. This paper gives an overview of professional ethics from the point of view of health research ethics, and concludes that alerting health researchers about these issues is not only good for the protection of the welfare of research participants, but is also critical for the carrier development of the researchers, be they junior or senior.

Nyika A. Animal research ethics in Africa: An overview. Acta Trop. 2009 Nov; 112(1): S48-S52

African Malaria Network Trust (AMANET), P.O. Box 33207, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

With research projects that use animals on the increase worldwide and in Africa in particular, animal research ethics should continue to be reviewed to improve the welfare of animals used in research. The welfare of animals used in research has gained attention globally that has led to the development of guidelines and in some instances national laws governing animal experimentation. Although there may not be empirical data on the existence or adequacy of national and/or institutional policies and guidelines on the use of animals in research in Africa, most African countries are not yet at the same level as developed countries. Consequently, some researchers based at institutions in developed countries may be tempted to 'export' their research activities to collaborating African institutions where ethical and legal frameworks on use of animals may be less stringent than in the developed countries. An appreciation of the intrinsic value of animals should be enough driving force for human beings to strive to promote humane treatment of animals. This paper gives an overview of uses and potential abuses of animals in research for the benefit of stakeholders such as researchers, research institutions, Ethics Review Committees (ERCs) and policy makers and ends with suggestions on possible ways of ensuring humane treatment of animals used in research in Africa in particular and globally in general.

Mmbando BP, Segeja MD, Msangeni HA, Sembuche SH, Ishengoma DS, Seth MD, Francis F, Rutta AS, Kamugisha ML, Lemnge MM. Epidemiology of malaria in an area prepared for clinical trials in Korogwe, north-eastern Tanzania. Malar J. 2009 Jul 18;8:165 

National Institute for Medical Research, Tanga Medical Research Centre, Tanga, Tanzania. bmmbando@tanga.mimcom.net

BACKGROUND: Site preparation is a pre-requesite in conducting malaria vaccines trials. This study was conducted in 12 villages to determine malariometric indices and associated risk factors, during long and short rainy seasons, in an area with varying malaria transmission intensities in Korogwe district, Tanzania. Four villages had passive case detection (PCD) of fever system using village health workers. METHODS: Four malariometric cross-sectional surveys were conducted between November 2005 and May 2007 among individuals aged 0-19 years, living in lowland urban, lowland rural and highland strata. A total of 10,766 blood samples were collected for malaria parasite diagnosis and anaemia estimation. Blood smears were stained with Giemsa while haemoglobin level was measured by HaemoCue. Socio-economic data were collected between Jan-Apr 2006. RESULTS: Adjusting for the effect of age, the risk of Plasmodium falciparum parasitaemia was significantly lower in both lowland urban, (OR = 0.26; 95%CI: 0.23-0.29, p < 0.001) and highlands, (OR = 0.21; 95%CI: 0.17-0.25, p < 0.001) compared to lowland rural. Individuals aged 6-9 years in the lowland rural and 4-19 years in both lowland urban and highlands had the highest parasite prevalence, whilst children below five years in all strata had the highest parasite density. Prevalence of splenomegaly and gametocyte were also lower in both lowland urban and highlands than in lowland rural. Anaemia (Hb <11 g/dl) prevalence was lowest in the lowland urban. Availability of PCD and higher socio-economic status (SES) were associated with reduced malaria and anaemia prevalence. CONCLUSION: Higher SES and use of bed nets in the lowland urban could be the important factors for low malaria infections in this stratum. Results obtained here were used together with those from PCD and DSS in selecting a village for Phase 1b MSP3 vaccine trial, which was conducted in the study area in year 2008.

Lusingu JP, Gesase S, Msham S, Francis F, Lemnge M, Seth M, Sembuche S, Rutta A, Minja D, Segeja MD, Bosomprah S, Cousens S, Noor R, Chilengi R, Druilhe P. Satisfactory safety and immunogenicity of MSP3 malaria vaccine candidate in Tanzanian children aged 12-24 months. Malar J. 2009 Jul 17;8:163.

National Institute for Medical Research, Tanga Centre, Tanzania. jpalusingu@yahoo.co.uk

BACKGROUND: Development and deployment of an effective malaria vaccine would complement existing malaria control measures. A blood stage malaria vaccine candidate, Merozoite Surface Protein-3 (MSP3), produced as a long synthetic peptide, has been shown to be safe in non-immune and semi-immune adults. A phase Ib dose-escalating study was conducted to assess the vaccine's safety and immunogenicity in children aged 12 to 24 months in Korogwe, Tanzania (ClinicalTrials.gov number: NCT00469651). METHODS: This was a double-blind, randomized, controlled, dose escalation phase Ib trial, in which children were given one of two different doses of the MSP3 antigen (15 microg or 30 microg) or a control vaccine (Engerix B). Children were randomly allocated either to the MSP3 candidate malaria vaccine or the control vaccine administered at a schedule of 0, 1, and 2 months. Immunization with lower and higher doses was staggered for safety reasons starting with the lower dose. The primary endpoint was safety and reactogenicity within 28 days post-vaccination. Blood samples were obtained at different time points to measure immunological responses. Results are presented up to 84 days post-vaccination. RESULTS: A total of 45 children were enrolled, 15 in each of the two MSP3 dose groups and 15 in the Engerix B group. There were no important differences in reactogenicity between the two MSP3 groups and Engerix B. Grade 3 adverse events were infrequent; only five were detected throughout the study, all of which were transient and resolved without sequelae. No serious adverse event reported was considered to be related to MSP3 vaccine. Both MSP3 dose regimens elicited strong cytophilic IgG responses (subclasses IgG1 and IgG3), the isotypes involved in the monocyte-dependant mechanism of Plasmodium falciparum parasite-killing. The titers reached are similar to those from African adults having reached a state of premunition. Furthermore, vaccination induced seroconversion in all vaccinees. CONCLUSION: The MSP3 malaria vaccine candidate was safe, well tolerated and immunogenic in children aged 12-24 months living in a malaria endemic community. Given the vaccine's safety and its induction of cytophilic IgG responses, its efficacy against P. falciparum infection and disease needs to be evaluated in Phase 2 studies.

A Nyika, W Kilama, R Chilengi, G Tangwa, P Tindana, P Ndebele and J Ikingura. (2009). Composition, training needs and independence of ethics review committees across Africa: are the gate-keepers rising to the emerging challenges? Journal of Medical Ethics 35:189-193. Available at: http://jme.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/35/3/189

Nyika, Aceme, Wassenaar, Douglas Richard and Mamotte, Nicole. (2009). The Effect of Relationships on Decision-
Making Processes of Women in Harare, Zimbabwe. Ethics & Behavior,19(3); 184 — 200.

Lang T, Chilengi R, Noor RA, Ogutu B, Todd JE, Kilama WL, Targett GA. Data safety and monitoring boards for African clinical trials. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 2008 Dec;102(12):1189-94. Epub 2008 Jul 21.

Nyika A, Kilama WL, Tangwa GB, Chilengi R and Tindana P. (2008). Capacity building of Ethics Review Committees across Africa based on the results of a comprehensive needs assessment survey. Developing World Bioethics ISSN 1471-8731 (print); 1471-8847 (online) doi:10.1111/j.1471-8847.2008.00243.x
ABSTRACT
A needs assessment survey of ethics review committees (ERCs) acrossAfrica was conducted in order to establish their major needs and areas ofweaknesses in terms of ethical review capacity. The response rate was84% (31 of 37 targeted committees), and committees surveyed werelocated in 18 African countries. The majority of the responding committees(61%) have been in existence between 5 and 10 years; approximately 74%
of the respondents were institutional committees, with the remainder beingeither national (6/31) or regional (2/31).

In terms of the ethical review process, nine of the 31 committees thatresponded did not have standard operating procedures (SOPs), and sevenof the 22 that did have SOPs had never revised them after their initialdevelopment (an average period of three years). Of the 31 committees, 10operated without any ethical guidelines. Many of the committees (13/30)met once per month, and the number of proposals reviewed annuallyvaried, ranging from five to over 100. All respondents relied on paper-baseddata management and archiving systems.

Overall, the survey identified the major constraints on ERCs as lack ofoffice equipment, outdated or lack of SOPs, lack of electronic data managementsystems, inadequate resources, lack of or insufficient expertise onthe committees, and poor recognition of the importance of the role of thecommittees. Consequently, the authors are addressing the identified needsand weaknesses through the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation-fundedcapacity building project. The impact of the intervention project will beassessed during and at the end of the four-year longitudinal project.

Roma Chilengi, Godfrey Tangwa, Ramadhani Noor, Saad Ramadhani, Aceme Nyika, Samuel Bosomprah, Paul Ndebele, Wenceslaus Kilama. Teaching Research Ethics In Africa Through The Web: Report Of A Successful Experience

C. J. Gill, V. Mwanakasale, M. P. Fox, R. Chilengi, M. Tembo, M. Nsofwa, V. Chalwe, L. Mwananyanda, D. Mukwamataba, B. Malilwe, D. Champo, W. B. Macleod, D. M. Thea and D. H. Hamer. Impact of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection on Streptococcus pneumoniae Colonization and Seroepidemiology among Zambian Women. JID 2008:197 (15 March) ● Gill et al.

Issa Nebie, Amidou Diarra, Alphonse Ouedraogo, Issiaka Soulama, Edith C. Bougouma, Alfred B. Tiono, Amadou T. Konate, Roma Chilengi, Michael Theisen, Daniel Dodoo, Ed Remarque, Samuel Bosomprah, Paul Milligan, and Sodiomon B. Sirima. Humoral Responses to Plasmodium falciparum Blood-Stage Antigens and Association with Incidence of Clinical Malaria in Children Living in an Area of Seasonal Malaria Transmission in Burkina Faso, West Africa. INFECTION AND IMMUNITY, Feb. 2008, p. 759–766. Nebie et al.

Daniel Dodoo, Anastasia Aikins, Kwadwo Asamoah Kusi, Helena Lamptey, Ed Remarque, Paul Milligan, Samuel Bosomprah, Roma Chilengi, Yaa Difie Osei, Bartholomew Dicky Akanmori and Michael Theisen. Cohort study of the association of antibody levels to AMA1, MSP119, MSP3 and GLURP with protection from clinical malaria in Ghanaian children. Malaria Journal 2008, 7:142 doi:10.1186/1475-2875-7-142. Available at: http://www.malariajournal.com/content/7/1/142

Wen L. Kilama, Roma Chilengi, and Charles L. Wanga (2007). Towards an African-Driven Malaria Vaccine Development Program: History and Activities of the African Malaria Network Trust (AMANET). The American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg., 77(Suppl 6), 2007, pp. 282–288

Rugemalila JB, Ogundahunsi OA, Stedman TT, Kilama WL. Multilateral initiative on malaria: justification, evolution, achievements, challenges, opportunities, and future plans. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2007 Dec;77(6 Suppl):296-302.

Effa P, Massougbodji A, Ntoumi F, Hirsch F, Debois H, Vicari M, Derme A,
Ndemanga-Kamoune J, Nguembo J, Impouma B, Akué JP, Ehouman A, Dieye A, Kilama W. Ethics committees in western and central Africa: concrete foundations. Dev World Bioeth. 2007 Dec;7(3):136-42.

Effa P, Massougbodji A, Ntoumi F, Hirsch F, Debois H, Vicari M, Derme A,
Ndemanga-Kamoune J, Nguembo J, Impouma B, Akué JP, Ehouman A, Dieye A, Kilama W. Ethics committees in western and central Africa: concrete foundations. Dev World Bioeth. 2007 Dec;7(3):136-42.

Nyika Aceme. (2007). Ethical and regulatory issues surrounding African Traditional Medicine in the context of HIV/AIDS. Developing World Bioethics  7( 1); 25-34.

Nyika A. (2007). Biomedical Research in South Africa. In T. Mduluza (Ed.), Gateway to biomedical research in Africa. Nova Science Publishers Inc., NY.

Modest Mulenga, Jean-Pierre Van geertruyden, Lawrence Mwananyanda, Victor Chalwe, Filip Moerman, Roma Chilengi, Chantal Van Overmeir, Jean-Claude Dujardin and Umberto D'Alessandro(2006). Safety and efficacy of lumefantrine-artemether (Coartem®) for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Zambian adults. Malaria Journal 2006, 5:73 doi:10.1186/1475-2875-5-73. Available at: http://www.malariajournal.com/content/5/1/73

Rugemalila JB, Wanga CL, Kilama WL. Sixth Africa Malaria Day in 2006: how far have we come after the Abuja Declaration? Malar J. 2006 Nov 7;5:102.

Christopher Curtis, Caroline Maxwell, Martha Lemnge, W L Kilama, Richard W Steketee, William A Hawley, Yves Bergevin, Carlos C Campbell, Jeffrey Sachs, Awash Teklehaimanot, Sam Ochola, Helen Guyatt, and Robert W Snow. Scaling-up coverage with insecticide-treated nets against malaria in Africa: who should pay? Lancet Infect Dis 2003; 3: 304–07

Kilama WL. Malaria vaccine research and testing in Africa. Acta Trop. 2003 Oct;88(2):153-9.

Curtis C, Maxwell C, Lemnge M, Kilama WL, Steketee RW, Hawley WA, Bergevin Y,
Campbell CC, Sachs J, Teklehaimanot A, Ochola S, Guyatt H, Snow RW. Scaling-up coverage with insecticide-treated nets against malaria in Africa: who should pay? Lancet Infect Dis. 2003 May;3(5):304-7.
Comment in:
    Lancet Infect Dis. 2003 Aug;3(8):465-6; discussion 467-8.    Lancet Infect Dis. 2003 Aug;3(8):467; discussion 467-8.

Guerin PJ, Olliaro P, Nosten F, Druilhe P, Laxminarayan R, Binka F, Kilama WL,
Ford N, White NJ. Malaria: current status of control, diagnosis, treatment, and a proposed agenda for research and development. Lancet Infect Dis. 2002 Sep;2(9):564-73.

Kilama WL. The malaria burden and the need for research and capacity strengthening in Africa. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2001 Jan-Feb;64(1-2 Suppl):iii.

Kilama WL. Roll back malaria in sub-Saharan Africa? Bull World Health Organ. 2000;78(12):1452-3.

Kilama WL. Health challenges in early twenty-first century sub-Saharan Africa. Afr J Health Sci. 1999 Jan-March;6(1):9-16.

Alonso PL, Lopez MC, Bordmann G, Smith TA, Aponte JJ, Weiss NA, Urassa H,
Armstrong-Schellenberg JR, Kitua AY, Masanja H, Thomas MC, Oettli A, Hurt N,
Hayes R, Kilama WL, Tanner M. Immune responses to Plasmodium falciparum antigens during a malaria vaccine trial in Tanzanian children. Parasite Immunol. 1998 Feb;20(2):63-71.

Bruno JM, Feachem R, Godal T, Nchinda T, Ogilvie B, Mons B, Mshana R, Radda G,
Samba E, Schwartz M, Varmus H, Diallo S, Doumbo O, Greenwood B, Kilama W, Miller
LH, da Silva LP. The spirit of Dakar: a call for action on malaria. Nature. 1997 Apr 10;386(6625):541.

Alonso PL, Smith TA, Armstrong-Schellenberg JR, Kitua AY, Masanja H, Hayes R,
Hurt N, Font F, Menendez C, Kilama WL, Tanner M. Duration of protection and age-dependence of the effects of the SPf66 malaria vaccine in African children exposed to intense transmission of Plasmodium falciparum. J Infect Dis. 1996 Aug;174(2):367-72.